Overview
Speaking anxiety is a
common issue faced by many individuals, especially those learning a new
language or interpreting. This module aims to provide an understanding of the
different types of speaking anxiety, their causes, and strategies to overcome them
Anxiety is a normal emotion which faces each
individual in his life in different occasions. The feeling of being anxious has
a huge effect on the language learning which is considered as “a complex made
up of constituent that have different features. Thus, anxiety contains
different types and forms, the two major types are trait and state anxiety.
State and Trait Anxiety
Anxiety is a state of inner unrest or uneasiness
often described as "nervousness." Worry jitteriness, sweating, an
increased heart rate, rapid breathing and other feelings and symptoms commonly
accompany anxiety A long-held and still popular distinction between
"state" and "trait" anxiety allows anxiety to be thought of
in two ways: as a temporary emotional state that nearly everyone experiences
and as a consistent personality attribute. Starting with state anxiety which is
considered situational and a temporal sensation of apprehension that arises due
to encountering a certain threatening situation i.e., it is an emotional
reaction to a specific provocative situation. it is “a transmitting emotional
state or condition of the human organism that varies in intensity and
fluctuates. In other words, state anxiety arises momentarily due to confronting
a threat. However, its severity and effects on the person alter depending on
the situation. The other type of anxiety is called trait anxiety. Contrarily to
state anxiety, trait anxiety is innate, very intensive, and occurs in unlimited
number of situations. Moreover, it is considered a permanent feature of
personality. the feeling of trait anxiety appears casually for people who had
experienced it before, even if the situation does not involve anxiety at all.
So, trait anxiety is a personality characteristic, and a permanent feeling of
apprehension which arise in variety of situations.
Facilitative and Debilitative Anxiety
Facilitative anxiety is the positive anxiety
that helps the students to do well. It works as a motivating factor that
enhances the learners’ performance and allows the input to stick deeper in
mind. Therefore, experiencing the correct amount of anxiety can be beneficial,
and encourage students to achieve their goals. However, debilitative anxiety is
the great amount of anxiety that influences negatively the students’
performance and achievements; it has harmful effects that lead to negative
outcomes. Hence, an unnecessary worry and tension will make the individual
unable to use his capacities appropriately in order to remember what has been
learnt before, or to develop his information and previous input.
Manifestations
of Foreign Language Anxiety
Many people think that manifestations/symptoms
of language anxiety while learning a foreign language are obvious and easy to
know. However, it has received much attention from researchers and foreign
language teachers who have attempted to find out in what way students suffer
from such a problem using diaries, interviews and scales in their studies.
Hence, different views and categories of language anxiety were identified.
Three main kinds of behavior associated with anxiety in social situations:
Arousal mediated responses disaffiliate behavior, and image protection behavior
.
The first behavior appears when the person
becomes too active in which he fidgets and squirms while seated, often feeling
restless. The second behavior is when the person avoids doing the necessary
tasks and avoids preparing at home and even is unable to engage in classroom
activities and dialogues.
Furthermore, three components of language
anxiety: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The first aspect (cognitive)
increases distracting self-related cognition, expectations of failure, and a
decrease in cognitive processing ability, while the second aspect (affective)
is associated with feelings of worry and frightening. The third aspect
(behavioral) is about being neutral and silent and avoiding engaging in any
situation.
Instruments
for Measuring Language Anxiety
Language anxiety can be measured using a variety
of tools. behavioural, observational, physiological, or self-report methods of
the subjects.
A behavioural exam initially looks at a subject's responses, such as
perspiration and blushing. The second aspect of the physiological examination
is how the subject's heart rate, blood pressure, and amount of sweat on his
palms are measured and compared to his emotional state. Finally, Zheng (2008)
states that in educational research where participants are requested to
evaluate their internal sensations and reactions, "participants’
self-reports are usually used to examine anxiety. Additionally, there are other
measures to gauge language anxiety, such as the speaking anxiety scale developed
by Clevenger and Halvorsen .
Characteristics
of Anxiety
Anxiety is primarily
characterised by worry, which is an anticipated cognitive process that involves
recurrent thoughts about potentially dangerous events and their prospective
repercussions. This implies that when people focus on the negative aspects of
life, they simply assume that awful things will happen to them, which causes
them to be always anxious. Given the significant impact anxiety has on learning
English as a second language, it's critical to understand the many viewpoints.
Pupils who experience language anxiety differ from other pupils in that they
exhibit a variety of traits that impact their cognitive and psychological
behaviour.
As a result, anxiety affects the cognitive,
behavioural, and physiological aspects of learning a foreign language, which
hinders the development and improvement of the speakers' ability. Furthermore,
it may deter students from participating in class activities and engaging with
the material. Therefore, if anxiety is not lessened, it will develop into more
than just a bad feeling and may even develop into a phobia or other serious
problems.
Sources
of Foreign Language Anxiety
When studying or utilising a second or foreign
language, non-native speakers may suffer feelings of worry and nervousness
known as foreign language anxiety. The speaking performance of EFL students may
suffer from anxiety. As a result of the special nature of the language learning
process, anxiety is described as a "distinct complex phenomenon of
self-perception, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom
language learning." This sentiment could make it more difficult to be
willing to get better in any second or foreign language, whether it has to do
with receptive or productive skills. Numerous researchers have found a number
of causes of anxiety in foreign language lessons, including speaking
activities, competitiveness, fear of a negative evaluation, test anxiety, lack
of enthusiasm, and negative self-perception.
Communication Apprehension
Communication anxiety (CA) is thought to be a
significant component of learning a foreign language and has an impact on
students' oral performance accomplishments. Pupils who experience anxiety while
speaking or engaging with their peers are likely to face more challenges when
speaking in a foreign language in situations where they are not as proficient
in the language. "A type of shyness characterised by fear or anxiety about
communicating with people is communicative apprehension, the special communication
apprehension derived from the personal knowledge that one will almost certainly
have difficulty understanding others and making oneself understood.
As a result, speaking and understanding English
is typically difficult for many English language learners who are not native
speakers. The psychological barriers causing low self-esteem that impede their
ability to talk when performing orally are the root cause of communication
anxiety.
"An individuals' level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated
communication with another person or persons" (McCroskey, 1977, p.78,
posited in Byrene, 1997, p.1) is McCroskey's (1977) assumption of CA. Speaking
anxiety in learners can also be situation-specific, or what is known as
context-based apprehension (CA); this type manifests in certain situations,
like in a meeting, when speaking in front of a group (oral communication
anxiety), or when listening to spoken messages (receive anxiety) (Byrene,
1997).
According to McCroskey's hypothesis, most nervous
students encounter speaking context-based anxiety when participating in certain
classroom communicative activities. In contexts outside than the classroom,
they can demonstrate even better proficiency and confident oral communication
in English, even if they are not entirely fearless. However, the fear of
speaking in more intimidating situations keeps individuals from participating
completely in Speaking classes, hinders their ability to think and act
independently, and keeps them from participating at all.
As a result, students in EFL classrooms who
struggle with communication anxiety typically experience discomfort. In
addition to that "they also may feel that their attempts at oral work are
constantly being monitored" .Speaking anxiety is linked to a student's
poor self-concepts, which are a result of their bad experiences, and their
inability to recognise and communicate knowledge to others, according to
MacIntyre and Gardner (1991). Therefore, it is clear that communication anxiety
plays a major part in FL anxiety, which has a negative impact on both the
process of learning a foreign language and the oral communication skills of the
learner.
Test Anxiety
According to its definition, test anxiety is a
specific kind of performance anxiety brought on by a fear of failing. That
happens either prior to or during an exam. It is a physiological state when
students experience heightened anxiety, nervousness, and discomfort either
before or during an exam. Significant barriers to the effectiveness of the
learning process are caused by this fear.
Numerous studies indicate that increased worry and test-irrelevant thoughts
during an exam are associated to additional causes of test anxiety. Test
anxiety might also entail a dread of poor performance in the past and a bad
assessment. Additionally, elements of the testing environment, like the type of
tasks, level of difficulty, location, time constraints, teacher demeanour, and
physical surroundings, might affect how much worse the test taker feels.
achievement and motivation to learn in the
classroom because this anxiety can result in impaired performance in the
classroom. Hill and Wigfield (1984) report studies about test anxiety and
achievement state “anxiety and achievement share significant variance, so high
test-anxious individuals have an increased likelihood to perform poorly if a
task is to be evaluated”. Putwain and Best (2011), who examined test
performance among elementary children have argued that when the examiner puts
pressure on the learners, their achievements in high threat situations
demonstrated that students performed worse and experienced more test anxiety
and apprehensive thoughts than when in a low threat environment.
Fear of Negative Evaluation
The worry about others' opinions, the avoidance
of situations that need evaluation, and the strong expectation that others
would evaluate oneself poorly are all considered forms of fear of negative
evaluation. Because it can occur in any social or assessment context, including
oral or imagined social contexts, "the prospect or presence of
interpersonal evaluation," the term "fear of negative
evaluation" is more general than "test anxiety."
When students participate in oral expression sessions in a language school,
their fear of receiving a poor grade grows. Students may be afraid of being
judged by their peers or the teacher in a passive manner, which causes them to
speak poorly and make a lot of mistakes out of extreme anxiety. Errors are
inevitable in the learning process and for many students, they are the source
of anxiety.
Consequently, students who have a strong fear of
receiving a poor grade are more likely to avoid classroom situations and to
avoid situations where they may have to deal with it. Furthermore, students who
struggle with communication anxiety seldom strike up a discussion and engage in
limited interaction. They also tend to be passive in class, avoid assignments
that could help them become better speakers, and sometimes even skip class
altogether.
Lack of Motivation
Motivation is a significant factor that provokes
anxiety if it is lacking. Motivation is the driving force behind learner
behavior. Motivated learners are those who have made an aware decision to
specify a great effort to obtain something that they value (Weiner, 1992); it energizes
students and provides direction. It is one of the most important keys to
success in learning. When there is motivation students achieve greater and
better outcomes and accomplishments.
However, the lack of motivation still
constitutes a serious problem for both teachers and students in language
classrooms. The absence of motivation might make the student anxious,
apprehended, and depressed to speak or learn a new language (Cort, 2012). If
students do not believe that their efforts are likely to improve their
performance, they will not be motivated to work hard. Motivation can be
influenced, for example, if a course has a reputation for being difficult.
Students may also have had discouraging experiences in similar courses that
convince them they cannot do the work. Additionally, if students attribute
their success to their innate talents rather than effort, they may not be
motivated to work. This can happen whether they believe they possess the
necessary abilities or lack them. Therefore, language learning requires time
and effort and when learners lose their interest and desire to learn they will
obtain the worst results.
Negative Self-perception
The learning process is significantly influenced
by an individual's perception and misperception of their abilities. Anxious
learners often underestimate their abilities, particularly in speaking skills.
This anxiety can lead to poor cognitive performance and oral performance.
Teachers should focus on enhancing self-confidence in language learners by
focusing on positive experiences rather than negative ones. This approach can
help students overcome challen ges and achieve their goals, ultimately
leading to better language proficiency.
Speaking Activities
Language anxiety is a significant issue in
learning a foreign language, with classroom practices playing a crucial role.
Research by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) found that learners with high
anxiety are worried about communicating in a foreign language, with activities
like prepared dialogues, oral presentations, skits, and spontaneous role-play
situations increasing anxiety.
Price (1991) suggests that students often feel
apprehensive about speaking due to fear of ridicule, pronunciation mistakes, or
fluency issues. Teachers should consider the impact of speaking activities on
learners' anxiety when planning activities.
Competitiveness
Bailey (1983) highlights that excessive
competitiveness in language learners can increase anxiety, leading to
comparisons, idealized self-image, harmful reactions, a desire to outperform,
teacher acceptance, and a focus on tests and grades.
Oxford (1999) suggests that competitiveness may
influence language anxiety, but it depends on learners' learning style,
competition type, and environment demands. Language instructors should create a
low anxiety classroom atmosphere by using diverse methods to address personal
and interpersonal fears. Understanding students' language learning anxieties
helps them cope effectively.
Anxiety
as a Hindrance to learning
Learning a second language involves acquiring
new techniques from a foreign culture, which can be challenging for some
learners due to emotional factors such as anxiety. Language anxiety is a stable
personality trait that causes nervous reactions when speaking, listening, reading,
or writing in a second language, leading to reduced participation in class and
reluctance to express personal information in the target language.
Spielberger (2005) explains that anxiety
negatively impacts second language learning by deviating attention and
cognitive resources, leading to less proficiency in speech skills. He predicts
that trait and state anxiety can affect the learning process, with trait
anxiety affecting learners in any situation, and state anxiety affecting
learners in specific events or activities.
Language acquisition is influenced by students'
perception of their communicative competence in second language acquisition.
Anxiety can lead to underestimation of less anxious students, highlighting the
need for efforts to reduce anxiety in classrooms.
The
Effects of Anxiety on Learning Performance
Anxiety impacts learning performance in foreign
language learning, affecting input, processing, and output stages. Ellis (2003)
studied the relationship between language anxiety and learners' achievement.
Understanding FL anxiety's influence is crucial for understanding its impact on
oral weaknesses and linguistic difficulties.
Input
The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is
activated during the first learning stage, but anxious learners may struggle
due to their affective filter, which includes self-confidence, anxiety, and
inhibition. These barriers hinder input from reaching LAD, hindering
concentration and internal representation of input.
Therefore, at this stage when anxiety arouses,
the internal reaction will guide the learners' attention to their state of
worry and discomfort. Input anxiety refers to the anxiety experienced by the
learners when they encounter new information in the target language. This
causes misunderstanding of the message of the instructor and damage to
successful communication.
Processing
Processing is the second stage in which students
are influenced by FL anxiety, where the new information performed by mental
processes takes place. During this stage, anxiety intervenes with the students'
cognitive tasks, especially when the task is related to the student's ability;
the effect of anxiety will be greater. So, the students cannot concentrate or
use the stored information. For example, a learner in a free discussion or talking
about a given topic cannot speak fluently because the anxiety makes him forget
the appropriate vocabularies that he needs to use.
Segalowitz (2003) suggests that a learner's
ability to focus on multiple mental activities at once is limited in the Information
Processing Model (IPM). Comfortable students, who are relaxed, can
spontaneously choose words, pronounce them, and grammatically mark them.
Horwitz and Cope (1986) suggest that learners'
foreign language anxiety can be reduced by focusing on linguistic aspects,
using cognitive sources for information processing, and building knowledge that
can be automatically used for speaking and understanding.
Output
FL fear has an impact on learning's output
stage, especially when it comes to speaking in FL. It happens during the
performance stage of the learning process, when anxiety or fear may prevent the
learners from applying prior knowledge.
Divergent opinions exist on the correlation
between anxiety and learning a foreign language; generally speaking, language
anxiety manifests as detrimental effects. Through the development of the
Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope
(1986) demonstrate an important negative association between anxiety and FL
achievement. Furthermore, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) claimed that anxiety
impairs FL learning performance, stating that students who experience
significant levels of worry are likely to do worse orally than their more at
ease peers. According to their research, learners' anxiety may have an impact
on both their performance and attitudes on language acquisition.
Therefore, anxious learners in this stage will
not succeed in their oral performance. Also they will choose to be most of the
time passive and avoid engagement with their learning, even though they can do
well if they control their fears. Likewise, such learners will lose the
opportunity to be better students with powerful abilities.
Causes of Speech Anxiety
There are numerous factors that results
students’ speech anxiety. There are many studies conducted to explore these
factors. Researchers like Xiuqin and Liu (2007) have investigate the causes
that lead to students’ speaking anxiety by making a study on Chinese English learners.
The majority of academics would concur with
Arnold and Brown's (1999:8) conclusion that anxiety is most likely the
affective aspect that hinders learning the most (although while we cannot deny
its attraction, worry is most likely not the most important factor in learning
success or failure). Consequently, anxiety has dominated L2 research for many
years. (As stated on page 198 of Dörneiy, 2005). When discussing anxiety in the
classroom, academics have identified a number of variables that contribute to
anxiety in language learning environments, including: Exams, competitiveness,
and students' perceptions of their teachers' relationships can all lead to
anxiety in the classroom
Lack of vocabulary
English language learners experience anxiety
when speaking English due to their limited vocabulary. Due to their limited
vocabulary and difficulty understanding new words, they are timid and fear
communicating.
Lack of preparation
Liu's research indicates that most Chinese learners of English experience anxiety as a result of inadequate preparation. However, when they are well-prepared, they feel less anxious and more at ease speaking English because they are more confident in their presentations.
Lack of practice
Lack of practice in the foreign language that
students are studying may be the cause of their speech anxiety. According to
Liu, "they didn't have many opportunities to speak the language in their
daily lives, nor did they have much practice of oral English in class due to
the short class period and large class size." Many students experience
anxiety as a result when speaking in English in class. One of these pupils
remarks, for instance, "I might be scared because I haven't practiced and
I'm not used to it. Because they have gone through that many times previously,
some people don't feel anxious .
Fear of making mistakes
An other factor contributing to students' speaking anxiety is their dread of making mistakes. "I like to speak English, but when I am in front of others, I will be nervous and can't say anything because I am afraid others will laugh at me if I make a mistake," says one of the study participants, according to Liu (130). Learners of foreign languages sometimes experience anxiety due to their dread of making mistakes and receiving negative feedback. But students shouldn't be scared to make mistakes because doing so would prevent them from communicating.
Inability to express ideas
Learners of foreign languages occasionally encounter challenges while attempting to convey their thoughts in the language they are studying. According to a student in Liu's study, "There are moments when I find it difficult to talk to people." Because I am unsure of how to convey my thoughts with the language I have learnt. Speaking in front of others makes me anxious because I worry that I won't say anything and will just stand there looking awkward (131). When they are unable to convey their ideas in English from their original language, learners may become anxious. A different student says, "I become scared when I speak English in front of others because I don't know what to say or, if I do, I can't convert it into
Fear of being focus of attention
Another theory for why kids have speech anxiety
is their fear of being the centre of attention. The results of Liu's study show
that many students experience anxiety when they are singled out for
English-speaking in class. One of these students says, "I feel like there
are too many people watching me when I speak English in front of other people,
so I get nervous all the time." Oh God! (135).
Learners who are not fluent in English may have
speech anxiety. According to Liu's (2007) research, Chinese English learners
experienced anxiety as a result of their inadequate English ability. "I'm
a little afraid of speaking English, because my speaking English is poor,"
says one of them (129).
Characteristics
of Students Suffering from Speech Anxiety
There are many characteristics that make
students who suffer from speech anxiety different from other learners. Some of
these characteristics manifests in physical symptoms; for instance, Morris
states different signs experienced by anxious speakers such as : dry mouth,
sweaty palms, shaking hands, pale skin, numbing body, shallow breathing,
dizziness, quivering voice, etc
There are other characteristics which manifests
in mental symptoms among the anxious speakers. According to Kanar (2011),
learners who experience anxiety in speaking are characterized by mental
symptoms such as : disorganized thoughts, forgetting what they had plan to say,
feeling of inadequacy, and negative self-talk.
These psychological and physiological symptoms
are not the only indications. For instance, Basic (2010) asserts that children
who are concerned can be less attentive to their lecturers and are frequently
extremely composed, quiet, and submissive. In addition, many pupils quit school
very early and are silent the entire time they attend.
The effects of speech anxiety on
students’ learning and Speaking Performance
Learning a foreign language, especially speaking the language, has been found to be severely hampered by anxiety" (Xiuqin, 37). Furthermore, according to Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (qtd. in Xiuqin, 37), "anxiety is a major obstacle to be overcome in learning to speak another language." Thus, we might conclude that speaking anxiety hinders the process of picking up and using a second language. Speaking anxiety can impact various elements of learning, including the following:
1. Language learning process
Speaking anxiety has a detrimental impact on students' ability to focus and assimilate information in the classroom, which, in turn, affects how well students produce language
2. Grades
Speaking nervous students have lower motivation than other learners. Additionally, that students' grades are based on how actively they participate in class activities. Quiet students who don't participate in class activities typically get poorer grades. As a result, learning is hampered by their inability to participate in class activities .
3. Speaking ability
In their study of Chinese college students, Fang-Peng and Dong (2010) discovered that students with high anxiety levels had poor spoken English proficiency. In addition, there are additional elements that contribute to elevated anxiety, including the focus on pronunciation and intonation as well as the influence of their native tongue (SubaşI,2010.35).
4. Self-confidence
Anxiety hinders learners' ability to communicate
and lowers their self-confidence. Furthermore, speaking nervousness creates a
low self-confidence which makes students remain quiet in all situation.
Foreign
language anxiety and the four skills
Recent studies have attempt to explore the relationship between foreign language anxiety and reading, writing, and listening in addition to speaking. However, the more assertion has been given to the correlation between foreign language anxiety and the speaking skill.
Foreign language anxiety and the reading skill
Research indicates that high levels of anxiety when reading in a foreign language have an impact on comprehension because, in contrast to low levels of anxiety, learners lose focus and recall less information when reading (Sellers, 2000).
Foreign language anxiety and the listening skill
According to Campbell (1999), listening is not
thought to be an anxiety-inducing activity. But according to recent studies,
listening activities might also make people anxious (Ay,2010.84). According to
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986, 126), nervous students have trouble telling
the difference between the target language's sounds and structure.
Foreign language anxiety and writing skill
Some research has been done to investigate the
relationship between writing proficiency and anxiety related to learning a
foreign language. there is a significant and inverse relationship between
students' writing achievement and their anxiety when writing in a second
language.
Foreign language speaking anxiety in comparison
to other skills
A review of the literature reveals a negative
correlation between speaking ability and anxiousness. We also see that anxiety
can have an impact on the other abilities. Nonetheless, the majority of experts
concur that speaking ability is more affected by anxiety. Speaking is seen as
the most demanding talent among the other skills by both teachers and students,
according to Young (1991) (SubaşI, 2010.32). Leki (1991) ranked speaking as the
activity that causes the most anxiety, and writing as the activity that causes
the least anxiety (Ay, 2010.84).
Objectives
By the end of this module, learners should be able to:
. Identify the different types of speaking anxiety-
. Understand the causes and effects of speaking anxiety-
. Apply strategies to manage and overcome speaking anxiety-
:Sub Skills
. Self-awareness: Understanding one's own anxiety triggers and
responses-
. Relaxation techniques: Learning and applying techniques to reduce
anxiety-
. Public speaking skills: Developing confidence in public speaking-
. Interpreting skills: Improving language proficiency and
interpreting accuracy-
:Types of Speaking Anxiety
. -Anticipatory Anxiety: This is the anxiety
that occurs before the speaking event. It can manifest as worry, fear, or
nervousness about the upcoming event
. -Somatic Anxiety: This is the physical
manifestation of anxiety, such as sweating, trembling, or a racing heart
. -Cognitive Anxiety: This is the mental
aspect of anxiety, such as negative selftalk or fear of failure
4. -Arousal Anxiety: This is the level of
anxiety that affects performance. High arousal can lead to mistakes, while low
arousal can lead to lack of engagement
:Methods
. -Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): This
method helps individuals identify and change negative thought patterns that
lead to anxiety
. -Systematic Desensitization: This method
involves gradually exposing individuals to anxiety-inducing situations to
reduce their fear response
. -Relaxation Techniques: These include deep
breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and visualization
:Teaching Aids
. -Role-plays: These can help individuals
practice speaking in a safe and controlled environment
. -Video Recordings: These can help
individuals analyze their speaking skills and identify areas for improvement
. -Feedback: Constructive feedback from
teachers and peers can help individuals improve their speaking skills and
manage their anxiety
Strategies:
. -Preparation: Thorough preparation can help
reduce anxiety. This includes researching the topic, practicing the speech, and
familiarizing oneself with the environment
. -Positive Self-talk: Encouraging oneself
with positive affirmations can help boost confidence and reduce anxiety
. -Mindfulness: Focusing on the present
moment can help reduce anxiety and improve performance
Applying Connectivism
Principles:
Connectivism emphasizes the importance of learning networks and the
role of technology in learning. In this context, learners can connect with
others who are also dealing with speaking anxiety. They can share experiences,
strategies, and resources, and learn from each other.
:Teacher and Students Roles
Teachers play a crucial role in creating a supportive learning
environment and providing guidance and feedback. Students, on the other hand,
are responsible for their own learning. They need to actively participate in
class, practice speaking, and apply the strategies learned to manage their
anxiety.
: Evaluation and Feedback
Evaluation can be done through self-assessment, peer assessment,
and teacher assessment. Feedback should be constructive, specific, and timely.
It should focus on both the content of the speech and the management of
speaking anxiety.
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